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Disasters can occur at any time, and preparation is essential. Historical precedents for disaster planning include the development of granaries to sustain populations during periods of food scarcity, the establishment of fire codes in Rome under Nero, and early water management systems in China. (Sources: Kte'pi, 2011; Tuck, 2020) In the US, early disaster planning and operations were largely piecemeal, evolving in response to individual events without unified preparedness or response procedures. This approach changed in the 1970s following a series of 773 forest fires over 13 days, which resulted in substantial morbidity, mortality, and property loss despite the availability of seemingly adequate resources. Subsequent analysis of forest fire management identified multiple systemic deficiencies. Significant challenges included coordinating logistics across multiple organizations with differing command structures, which hindered the establishment and maintenance of effective leadership. Additional deficiencies included inadequate interagency communication, marked differences in terminology, excessive supervisory span of control, and poorly coordinated planning and resource distribution. Recognition of these deficiencies underscored the need for a more structured and standardized approach to disaster management. In response, Congress funded the US Forest Service to develop a program to address these gaps, resulting in the Firefighting Resources of California Organized for Potential Emergencies (FIRESCOPE) program. (Source: Incident Command System, no date) The FIRESCOPE program subsequently led to the development of the incident command system (ICS), which standardized incident management and improved interoperability across agencies.[1][2][3][4] In 1979, the continued recognition of the need for a unified national approach to disaster preparedness and response culminated in President Carter signing an executive order establishing the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). (Source: EMS1, 2025)