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referencesuptodate· REFERENCES· item f37_42_38569

REFERENCES Kushner I. The phenomenon of the acute phase response. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1982; 389:39. Gabay C, Kushner I. Acute-phase proteins and other systemic responses to inflammation. N Engl J Med 1999; 340:448. Tillett WS, Francis T. SEROLOGICAL REACTIONS IN PNEUMONIA WITH A NON-PROTEIN SOMATIC FRACTION OF PNEUMOCOCCUS. J Exp Med 1930; 52:561. Kushner I, Samols D. Oswald Avery and the pneumococcus. Pharos Alpha Omega Alpha Honor Med Soc 2011; 74:14. Osmand AP, Friedenson B, Gewurz H, et al. Characterization of C-reactive protein and the complement subcomponent C1t as homologous proteins displaying cyclic pentameric symmetry (pentraxins). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1977; 74:739. Inforzato A, Bottazzi B, Garlanda C, et al. Pentraxins in humoral innate immunity. Adv Exp Med Biol 2012; 946:1. Gabay C, Smith MF, Eidlen D, Arend WP. Interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) is an acute-phase protein. J Clin Invest 1997; 99:2930. Nemeth E, Valore EV, Territo M, et al. Hepcidin, a putative mediator of anemia of inflammation, is a type II acute-phase protein. Blood 2003; 101:2461. Bedell SE, Bush BT. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate. From folklore to facts. Am J Med 1985; 78:1001. Gauldie J, Richards C, Harnish D, et al. Interferon beta 2/B-cell stimulatory factor type 2 shares identity with monocyte-derived hepatocyte-stimulating factor and regulates the major acute phase protein response in liver cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1987; 84:7251. Moshage HJ, Janssen JA, Franssen JH, et al. Study of the molecular mechanism of decreased liver synthesis of albumin in inflammation. J Clin Invest 1987; 79:1635. Bode JG, Albrecht U, Häussinger D, et al. Hepatic acute phase proteins--regulation by IL-6- and IL-1-type cytokines involving STAT3 and its crosstalk with NF-κB-dependent signaling. Eur J Cell Biol 2012; 91:496. Loyer P, Ilyin G, Abdel Razzak Z, et al. Interleukin 4 inhibits the production of some acute-phase proteins by human hepatocytes in primary culture. FEBS Lett 1993; 336:215. Mackiewicz A, Schooltink H, Heinrich PC, Rose-John S. Complex of soluble human IL-6-receptor/IL-6 up-regulates expression of acute-phase proteins. J Immunol 1992; 149:2021. Dinarello C. Cytokines as endogenous pyrogens. In: Fever: Basic mechanisms and management, Mackowiak P (Ed), Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia 1997. p.87.

referencesuptodate· REFERENCES· item f37_42_38569

Mackiewicz A, Schooltink H, Heinrich PC, Rose-John S. Complex of soluble human IL-6-receptor/IL-6 up-regulates expression of acute-phase proteins. J Immunol 1992; 149:2021. Dinarello C. Cytokines as endogenous pyrogens. In: Fever: Basic mechanisms and management, Mackowiak P (Ed), Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia 1997. p.87. Goldbach JM, Roth J, Zeisberger E. Fever suppression by subdiaphragmatic vagotomy in guinea pigs depends on the route of pyrogen administration. Am J Physiol 1997; 272:R675. Chrousos GP. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune-mediated inflammation. N Engl J Med 1995; 332:1351. Sarraf P, Frederich RC, Turner EM, et al. Multiple cytokines and acute inflammation raise mouse leptin levels: potential role in inflammatory anorexia. J Exp Med 1997; 185:171. Krueger JM. Cytokine involvement in sleep responses to infection and physiological sleep. In: Cytokines in the Nervous System, Rothwell NJ (Ed), Landes Publishing, Austin 1996. p.41. Moldawer LL, Copeland EM 3rd. Proinflammatory cytokines, nutritional support, and the cachexia syndrome: interactions and therapeutic options. Cancer 1997; 79:1828. Wolf M, Böhm S, Brand M, Kreymann G. Proinflammatory cytokines interleukin 1 beta and tumor necrosis factor alpha inhibit growth hormone stimulation of insulin-like growth factor I synthesis and growth hormone receptor mRNA levels in cultured rat liver cells. Eur J Endocrinol 1996; 135:729. Li YP, Schwartz RJ, Waddell ID, et al. Skeletal muscle myocytes undergo protein loss and reactive oxygen-mediated NF-kappaB activation in response to tumor necrosis factor alpha. FASEB J 1998; 12:871. Means RT. Hepcidin and cytokines in anaemia. Hematology 2004; 9:357. Kushner I. Semantics, inflammation, cytokines and common sense. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 1998; 9:191. Black S, Kushner I, Samols D. C-reactive Protein. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:48487. Marnell L, Mold C, Du Clos TW. C-reactive protein: ligands, receptors and role in inflammation. Clin Immunol 2005; 117:104. Volanakis JE. Human C-reactive protein: expression, structure, and function. Mol Immunol 2001; 38:189. Janeway CA Jr, Medzhitov R. Innate immune recognition. Annu Rev Immunol 2002; 20:197. Rhodes B, Fürnrohr BG, Vyse TJ. C-reactive protein in rheumatology: biology and genetics. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2011; 7:282.

referencesuptodate· REFERENCES· item f37_42_38569

Marnell L, Mold C, Du Clos TW. C-reactive protein: ligands, receptors and role in inflammation. Clin Immunol 2005; 117:104. Volanakis JE. Human C-reactive protein: expression, structure, and function. Mol Immunol 2001; 38:189. Janeway CA Jr, Medzhitov R. Innate immune recognition. Annu Rev Immunol 2002; 20:197. Rhodes B, Fürnrohr BG, Vyse TJ. C-reactive protein in rheumatology: biology and genetics. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2011; 7:282. Ballou SP, Lozanski G. Induction of inflammatory cytokine release from cultured human monocytes by C-reactive protein. Cytokine 1992; 4:361. Cermak J, Key NS, Bach RR, et al. C-reactive protein induces human peripheral blood monocytes to synthesize tissue factor. Blood 1993; 82:513. Jones SA, Novick D, Horiuchi S, et al. C-reactive protein: a physiological activator of interleukin 6 receptor shedding. J Exp Med 1999; 189:599. Griselli M, Herbert J, Hutchinson WL, et al. C-reactive protein and complement are important mediators of tissue damage in acute myocardial infarction. J Exp Med 1999; 190:1733. Ahmed N, Thorley R, Xia D, et al. Transgenic mice expressing rabbit C-reactive protein exhibit diminished chemotactic factor-induced alveolitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:1141. Xia D, Samols D. Transgenic mice expressing rabbit C-reactive protein are resistant to endotoxemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997; 94:2575. Jiang S, Xia D, Samols D. Expression of rabbit C-reactive protein in transgenic mice inhibits development of antigen-induced arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol 2006; 35:351. Zouki C, Beauchamp M, Baron C, Filep JG. Prevention of In vitro neutrophil adhesion to endothelial cells through shedding of L-selectin by C-reactive protein and peptides derived from C-reactive protein. J Clin Invest 1997; 100:522. Gershov D, Kim S, Brot N, Elkon KB. C-Reactive protein binds to apoptotic cells, protects the cells from assembly of the terminal complement components, and sustains an antiinflammatory innate immune response: implications for systemic autoimmunity. J Exp Med 2000; 192:1353. Tam SP, Flexman A, Hulme J, Kisilevsky R. Promoting export of macrophage cholesterol: the physiological role of a major acute-phase protein, serum amyloid A 2.1. J Lipid Res 2002; 43:1410. Tam SP, Kisilevsky R, Ancsin JB. Acute-phase-HDL remodeling by heparan sulfate generates a novel lipoprotein with exceptional cholesterol efflux activity from macrophages. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3867.

referencesuptodate· REFERENCES· item f37_42_38569

Tam SP, Flexman A, Hulme J, Kisilevsky R. Promoting export of macrophage cholesterol: the physiological role of a major acute-phase protein, serum amyloid A 2.1. J Lipid Res 2002; 43:1410. Tam SP, Kisilevsky R, Ancsin JB. Acute-phase-HDL remodeling by heparan sulfate generates a novel lipoprotein with exceptional cholesterol efflux activity from macrophages. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3867. Su SB, Gong W, Gao JL, et al. A seven-transmembrane, G protein-coupled receptor, FPRL1, mediates the chemotactic activity of serum amyloid A for human phagocytic cells. J Exp Med 1999; 189:395. Mullan RH, Bresnihan B, Golden-Mason L, et al. Acute-phase serum amyloid A stimulation of angiogenesis, leukocyte recruitment, and matrix degradation in rheumatoid arthritis through an NF-kappaB-dependent signal transduction pathway. Arthritis Rheum 2006; 54:105. Boretti FS, Buehler PW, D'Agnillo F, et al. Sequestration of extracellular hemoglobin within a haptoglobin complex decreases its hypertensive and oxidative effects in dogs and guinea pigs. J Clin Invest 2009; 119:2271. Schaer DJ, Buehler PW, Alayash AI, et al. Hemolysis and free hemoglobin revisited: exploring hemoglobin and hemin scavengers as a novel class of therapeutic proteins. Blood 2013; 121:1276. Kilpatrick L, McCawley L, Nachiappan V, et al. Alpha-1-antichymotrypsin inhibits the NADPH oxidase-enzyme complex in phorbol ester-stimulated neutrophil membranes. J Immunol 1992; 149:3059. Cid MC, Grant DS, Hoffman GS, et al. Identification of haptoglobin as an angiogenic factor in sera from patients with systemic vasculitis. J Clin Invest 1993; 91:977. Bone RC. Toward a theory regarding the pathogenesis of the systemic inflammatory response syndrome: what we do and do not know about cytokine regulation. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:163. Malle E, De Beer FC. Human serum amyloid A (SAA) protein: a prominent acute-phase reactant for clinical practice. Eur J Clin Invest 1996; 26:427. Ham TC, Curtis FC. Sedimentation rate of erythrocytes. Medicine (Baltimore) 1938; 17:447. Hayes GS, Stinson IN. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and age. Arch Ophthalmol 1976; 94:939. Miller A, Green M, Robinson D. Simple rule for calculating normal erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1983; 286:266. Leff RD, Akre SP. Obesity and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Ann Intern Med 1986; 105:143.

referencesuptodate· REFERENCES· item f37_42_38569

Ham TC, Curtis FC. Sedimentation rate of erythrocytes. Medicine (Baltimore) 1938; 17:447. Hayes GS, Stinson IN. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and age. Arch Ophthalmol 1976; 94:939. Miller A, Green M, Robinson D. Simple rule for calculating normal erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1983; 286:266. Leff RD, Akre SP. Obesity and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Ann Intern Med 1986; 105:143. Yudkin JS, Stehouwer CD, Emeis JJ, Coppack SW. C-reactive protein in healthy subjects: associations with obesity, insulin resistance, and endothelial dysfunction: a potential role for cytokines originating from adipose tissue? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999; 19:972. Fincher RM, Page MI. Clinical significance of extreme elevation of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146:1581. Bathon J, Graves J, Jens P, et al. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate in end-stage renal failure. Am J Kidney Dis 1987; 10:34. Shusterman N, Kimmel PL, Kiechle FL, et al. Factors influencing erythrocyte sedimentation in patients with chronic renal failure. Arch Intern Med 1985; 145:1796. Arik N, Bedir A, Günaydin M, et al. Do erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein levels have diagnostic usefulness in patients with renal failure? Nephron 2000; 86:224. Liverman PC, Tucker FL, Bolton WK. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate in glomerular disease: association with urinary protein. Am J Nephrol 1988; 8:363. Woloshin S, Schwartz LM. Distribution of C-reactive protein values in the United States. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1611. Vanderschueren S, Deeren D, Knockaert DC, et al. Extremely elevated C-reactive protein. Eur J Intern Med 2006; 17:430. Le Gall C, Désidéri-Vaillant C, Nicolas X. [Significations of extremely elevated C-reactive protein: about 91 cases in a French hospital center]. Pathol Biol (Paris) 2011; 59:319. Krüger S, Ewig S, Papassotiriou J, et al. Inflammatory parameters predict etiologic patterns but do not allow for individual prediction of etiology in patients with CAP: results from the German competence network CAPNETZ. Respir Res 2009; 10:65. Simon L, Gauvin F, Amre DK, et al. Serum procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels as markers of bacterial infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39:206.

referencesuptodate· REFERENCES· item f37_42_38569

Krüger S, Ewig S, Papassotiriou J, et al. Inflammatory parameters predict etiologic patterns but do not allow for individual prediction of etiology in patients with CAP: results from the German competence network CAPNETZ. Respir Res 2009; 10:65. Simon L, Gauvin F, Amre DK, et al. Serum procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels as markers of bacterial infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39:206. Wener MH, Daum PR, McQuillan GM. The influence of age, sex, and race on the upper reference limit of serum C-reactive protein concentration. J Rheumatol 2000; 27:2351. Ranganath VK, Elashoff DA, Khanna D, et al. Age adjustment corrects for apparent differences in erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein values at the onset of seropositive rheumatoid arthritis in younger and older patients. J Rheumatol 2005; 32:1040. Slade GD, Ghezzi EM, Heiss G, et al. Relationship between periodontal disease and C-reactive protein among adults in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163:1172. Kushner I, Rzewnicki D, Samols D. What does minor elevation of C-reactive protein signify? Am J Med 2006; 119:166.e17. Giles JT, Bartlett SJ, Andersen R, et al. Association of body fat with C-reactive protein in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2008; 58:2632. van Leeuwen MA, van der Heijde DM, van Rijswijk MH, et al. Interrelationship of outcome measures and process variables in early rheumatoid arthritis. A comparison of radiologic damage, physical disability, joint counts, and acute phase reactants. J Rheumatol 1994; 21:425. Kushner I, Samols D, Magrey M. A unifying biologic explanation for "high-sensitivity" C-reactive protein and "low-grade" inflammation. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2010; 62:442. Casas JP, Shah T, Hingorani AD, et al. C-reactive protein and coronary heart disease: a critical review. J Intern Med 2008; 264:295. Medzhitov R. Origin and physiological roles of inflammation. Nature 2008; 454:428. Bianchi ME. DAMPs, PAMPs and alarmins: all we need to know about danger. J Leukoc Biol 2007; 81:1. Hotamisligil GS. Inflammation and metabolic disorders. Nature 2006; 444:860. Gaitonde S, Samols D, Kushner I. C-reactive protein and systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2008; 59:1814. Otterness IG. The value of C-reactive protein measurement in rheumatoid arthritis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1994; 24:91.

referencesuptodate· REFERENCES· item f37_42_38569

Bianchi ME. DAMPs, PAMPs and alarmins: all we need to know about danger. J Leukoc Biol 2007; 81:1. Hotamisligil GS. Inflammation and metabolic disorders. Nature 2006; 444:860. Gaitonde S, Samols D, Kushner I. C-reactive protein and systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2008; 59:1814. Otterness IG. The value of C-reactive protein measurement in rheumatoid arthritis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1994; 24:91. Donald F, Ward MM. Evaluative laboratory testing practices of United States rheumatologists. Arthritis Rheum 1998; 41:725. Larsen A. The relation of radiographic changes to serum acute-phase proteins and rheumatoid factor in 200 patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol 1988; 17:123. Cohick CB, Furst DE, Quagliata S, et al. Analysis of elevated serum interleukin-6 levels in rheumatoid arthritis: correlation with erythrocyte sedimentation rate or C-reactive protein. J Lab Clin Med 1994; 123:721. Nielen MM, van Schaardenburg D, Reesink HW, et al. Increased levels of C-reactive protein in serum from blood donors before the onset of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2004; 50:2423. Cush JJ, Lipsky PE, Postlethwaite AE, et al. Correlation of serologic indicators of inflammation with effectiveness of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug therapy in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1990; 33:19. Amos RS, Crockson RA, Crockson AP, et al. Rheumatoid arthritis: C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate during initial treatment. Br Med J 1978; 1:1396. Coste J, Spira A, Clerc D, Paolaggi JB. Prediction of articular destruction in rheumatoid arthritis: disease activity markers revisited. J Rheumatol 1997; 24:28. Matsuda Y, Yamanaka H, Higami K, Kashiwazaki S. Time lag between active joint inflammation and radiological progression in patients with early rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1998; 25:427. Wolfe F, Sharp JT. Radiographic outcome of recent-onset rheumatoid arthritis: a 19-year study of radiographic progression. Arthritis Rheum 1998; 41:1571. Plant MJ, Jones PW, Saklatvala J, et al. Patterns of radiological progression in early rheumatoid arthritis: results of an 8 year prospective study. J Rheumatol 1998; 25:417. McQueen FM, Stewart N, Crabbe J, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of the wrist in early rheumatoid arthritis reveals a high prevalence of erosions at four months after symptom onset. Ann Rheum Dis 1998; 57:350.

referencesuptodate· REFERENCES· item f37_42_38569

Plant MJ, Jones PW, Saklatvala J, et al. Patterns of radiological progression in early rheumatoid arthritis: results of an 8 year prospective study. J Rheumatol 1998; 25:417. McQueen FM, Stewart N, Crabbe J, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of the wrist in early rheumatoid arthritis reveals a high prevalence of erosions at four months after symptom onset. Ann Rheum Dis 1998; 57:350. Fujinami M, Sato K, Kashiwazaki S, Aotsuka S. Comparable histological appearance of synovitis in seropositive and seronegative rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1997; 15:11. Gough A, Sambrook P, Devlin J, et al. Osteoclastic activation is the principal mechanism leading to secondary osteoporosis in rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1998; 25:1282. Wolfe F, Hawley DJ. The longterm outcomes of rheumatoid arthritis: Work disability: a prospective 18 year study of 823 patients. J Rheumatol 1998; 25:2108. Proven A, Gabriel SE, O'Fallon WM, Hunder GG. Polymyalgia rheumatica with low erythrocyte sedimentation rate at diagnosis. J Rheumatol 1999; 26:1333. González-Gay MA, Rodríguez-Valverde V, Blanco R, et al. Polymyalgia rheumatica without significantly increased erythrocyte sedimentation rate. A more benign syndrome. Arch Intern Med 1997; 157:317. Helfgott SM, Kieval RI. Polymyalgia rheumatica in patients with a normal erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Arthritis Rheum 1996; 39:304. Weyand CM, Fulbright JW, Evans JM, et al. Corticosteroid requirements in polymyalgia rheumatica. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159:577. Salvarani C, Hunder GG. Giant cell arteritis with low erythrocyte sedimentation rate: frequency of occurence in a population-based study. Arthritis Rheum 2001; 45:140. Cantini F, Salvarani C, Olivieri I. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein in the diagnosis of polymyalgia rheumatica. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128:873. Vilá LM, Alarcón GS, McGwin G Jr, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic cohort (LUMINA): XXIX. Elevation of erythrocyte sedimentation rate is associated with disease activity and damage accrual. J Rheumatol 2005; 32:2150. Enocsson H, Sjöwall C, Skogh T, et al. Interferon-alpha mediates suppression of C-reactive protein: explanation for muted C-reactive protein response in lupus flares? Arthritis Rheum 2009; 60:3755. Pepys MB, Lanham JG, De Beer FC. C-reactive protein in SLE. Clin Rheum Dis 1982; 8:91.

referencesuptodate· REFERENCES· item f37_42_38569

Vilá LM, Alarcón GS, McGwin G Jr, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic cohort (LUMINA): XXIX. Elevation of erythrocyte sedimentation rate is associated with disease activity and damage accrual. J Rheumatol 2005; 32:2150. Enocsson H, Sjöwall C, Skogh T, et al. Interferon-alpha mediates suppression of C-reactive protein: explanation for muted C-reactive protein response in lupus flares? Arthritis Rheum 2009; 60:3755. Pepys MB, Lanham JG, De Beer FC. C-reactive protein in SLE. Clin Rheum Dis 1982; 8:91. ter Borg EJ, Horst G, Limburg PC, et al. C-reactive protein levels during disease exacerbations and infections in systemic lupus erythematosus: a prospective longitudinal study. J Rheumatol 1990; 17:1642. Moutsopoulos HM, Mavridis AK, Acritidis NC, Avgerinos PC. High C-reactive protein response in lupus polyarthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1983; 1:53. De Beer FC, Mallya RK, Fagan EA, et al. Serum amyloid-A protein concentration in inflammatory diseases and its relationship to the incidence of reactive systemic amyloidosis. Lancet 1982; 2:231. Legouffe E, Rodriguez C, Picot MC, et al. C-reactive protein serum level is a valuable and simple prognostic marker in non Hodgkin's lymphoma. Leuk Lymphoma 1998; 31:351. Tefferi A, Ho TC, Ahmann GJ, et al. Plasma interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein levels in reactive versus clonal thrombocytosis. Am J Med 1994; 97:374. Nozoe T, Matsumata T, Kitamura M, Sugimachi K. Significance of preoperative elevation of serum C-reactive protein as an indicator for prognosis in colorectal cancer. Am J Surg 1998; 176:335. Alexandrakis MG, Passam FH, Ganotakis ES, et al. The clinical and prognostic significance of erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) and acute phase protein levels in multiple myeloma. Clin Lab Haematol 2003; 25:41. Harris TB, Ferrucci L, Tracy RP, et al. Associations of elevated interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein levels with mortality in the elderly. Am J Med 1999; 106:506. Kushner I. C-reactive protein elevation can be caused by conditions other than inflammation and may reflect biologic aging. Cleve Clin J Med 2001; 68:535. Topic 7483 Version 10.0 © 2013 UpToDate, Inc. All rights reserved. | Subscription and License Agreement | Release: 21.3 - C21.34 Licensed to: Morehouse School of Medicine | Support Tag: [0503-41.78.124.10-D70169F40B-S473950.14]